THE MlNERAL TOPAZ

Topaz is a silicate mineral consisting mostly of aluminum, silicon, and oxygen, as well as some fluorine and some hydrogen atoms. It is a hard material (hardness of 8 on the Mohs hardness scale, with 10 being the hardest mineral = diamond).

Topaz is the "birthstone" for November. The practice of linking specific minerals to calendar months has had a fairly long history. The American Association of Jewelers in 1912 officially designated topaz to be the birthstone for November.

The name “topaz” is probably derived from the Sanskrit word “tapas,” meaning fire. It is commonly believed that all topaz is yellow, but that is not true. It is naturally colorless, but impurities, heat treatments, and/or radiation create shades of blue, yellow, yellow brown, brown, orange, red, pink, light green. Natural pink topaz is rare! Any intensely dark-blue topaz crystal will have been radiated via human interaction. 

Figure 1. A large light blue, non-radiated, crystal (46 carats and about 3 to 4 inches in diameter) of natural topaz from Minas Geras, Brazil. In this figure, I also included additional topaz minerals for comparison to the size of the unusually large crystal of blue topaz, which is displayed to the public in the mineralogy “room” at the Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles, California. This large crystal was collected from Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. Furthermore, clear crystals of topaz a foot and more across also have been found in Minas Gerais, Brazil (see below for more information and discussion about this locality). 

Topaz forms most commonly in pegmatite rocks, which consist of exceptionally coarse-grained, interlocking crystals, usually found as irregular dikes, lenses, and veins. Topaz, occurs in granites and in some cases, with rhyolite rocks. Very large crystals of topaz (up to several hundred pounds weight) have been found. Furthermore, topaz is commonly associated with fluorite, tourmaline, quartz, and other pegmatite minerals. In some cases, topaz has survived moderate amounts of transport by running water and occurs as rounded pebbles in alluvial deposits.

There are many misleading names that “suggest” a stone is topaz, when it is not! Examples are “Rio topaz,” “Maderia topaz,” “Spanish topaz,” “Palmeira topaz.” These are all types of citrine (quartz)!

Topaz is widespread in the world, with significant occurrences in Colorado, Utah, California, Texas, Virginia, Main, Connecticut, Colorado, Mexico, Russia, Nigeria, Japan, Australia, Tasmania, Pakistan, Japan, Africa, Sri Lanka, and Brazil.

The national mineral of Brazil is "Imperial Topaz," which can be red, orange, and/or yellow. 

Figure 2. Location of Minas Gerais (see the red dot), Brazil (at S18, W 44 degrees) in southern Brazil, South America of “Minas Gerais” in southeastern Brazil, South America. This region has the greatest variety of gems and semi-precious minerals in the world! Examples include diamonds, emeralds, gold, amethyst, rubellite (pink tourmaline), green tourmaline, topaz, alexanderite, amazonite, hematite, iron, etc. “Minas Gerais” is a Portuguese expression, meaning “General Mines.” Mining has been going on there, since the 18^th century. 

The geologic history of  geology of  the "Mines Gerais" locality is complicated! The area is centered on an ancient Precambrian core (1.7 billion years old), surrounded by younger mountains belts formed during major continental collisions. These collisions produced heat and chemically rich fluids that formed the vast-mineral wealth. The area has been mined for centuries. If  you go online and Google “Minas Gerais” minerals, and you will be amazed at the diversity of mineral wealth in the “Minas Gerais” region!

References:  [I consulted the following references in order to compile this blog post]. 

Bates, R.L. and J.A. Jackson (editors), 1984. Dictonary of Geological Terms. American Geological Institute. Third edition, 571 pp.

Berry, L.G. and B. Mason. 1950. Mineralogy. Concepts, descriptions, determinations. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco and London. 630 pp. 

Brown, V. et al. Rocks and minerals of California. Third edition. Naturegraph Publishing, 200 pp.

Hall, C. 1994. Gem stones. Eyewitness Handbooks. 160 pp.

Pellant, C. 1992. Eyewitness Handbooks. Rocks and Minerals. Dorling Kindersley, New York, 256 pp.

Sorrell, C.A. 1973. Rocks and Minerals. Golden Press, New York, 280 pp. 

Wikipedia. 2026.

"MOTH ORCHIDS"

Orchids are one of the largest families of plants today on Earth, with

about 900 genera and 26,000 species! Orchids like wet-tropical forests.

The "moth orchid," which is the focus of this blog post, is the most common orchid. Species of this kind of orchid have a wide range of colors and long-lasting flowers. Also, like all orchids, "moth orchids" have been widely cultivated.

Some specialized orchids (unlike those shown below) can grow on adjacent trees, instead of just growing in soil. To do so, these orchids have to use specialized roots to pull moisture from the air.

  Classification 
Kingdom Plantae
Clades (3 of them)
Order Asparagales
Family Orchidiaceae
Genus Phalaenopsis
Type species P. amaryllis

The orchid genus Phalaeonopsis is native to Asia, New Guinea, and Australia, but this genus mostly occurs today in Indonesia and the Philippines. This genus is represented by about 70 species. Like most orchids, this genus has long-lasting flowers. Common colors are shown below in the three figures.

Genus Phalaeonopsis is known for having long-lasting blooms and easy care. The following three images show a selection of Phalaeonopsis flowers.

                                                Figure 1. 

Figure 2. 

Figure 3.

BRYCE CANYON NATIONAL PARK

This national park is located in south-central Utah, and its elevation is between 8,000 and 9,000 feet. It is known for its unusual rock formations called “hoodoos.” [note: these are the largest concentration of “hoodoos,” anywhere in the world]. 

The spire-shaped “hoodoos” were formed by erosion of freshwater limestones of the Eocene-age Claron Formation. These rocks were originally formed a system of freshwater lakes in a flat, low-lying basin where muddy sediments accumulated. Eventually the pinnacles, canyons, bridges, and spires were formed by frost-weathering and stream-erosion processes. These rocks constitute a series of giant natural amphitheraters formed by fresh-water stream-erosion of river and lake beds, which now make up the non-marine Claron Formation.”

The Claron Formation is underlain by marine Cretaceous rocks which have some fossils (early mammals, lizards, etc.). Elsewhere in the park  are some Cretaceous rocks with some dinosaur remains and tracks, as well as some turtle and crocodilians remains, etc. Of course, collecting of fossils is not allowed anywhere in the park!

Bryce Canyon is an interesting place and definitely worth visiting. I visited the site in 1975. If you go there in the fall or winter, bring a warm jacket. 

Figure 1.Scenic view of the "hoodoos" rock formations.

Figure 2. Close-up of some "hoodoos."

Figure 3. View of one of the trails that visitors can hike down into some outcrops of rock. 

BIG BROWN BAT

Southern California has 20 to 25 species of bats. A bat was found on the ground (it later flew away) in a back yard in Santa Clarita, southern California. The animal had apparently been resting in a garden shed and was disturbed in its slumber. It did not allow vertical nor side views of it (no one should ever pick up a bat on the ground), thus its identification as to genus and species is questionable. The bat appeared to be dazed, but after a short time of recovery, it flew away.

Fig. 1. Big Brown Bat, in Santa Clarita, Southern California.

As can be seen in the only photograph I have of this bat, its upper wing surfaces, face, and ears are black. Its head and neck area, however, are gray. I do not have information as to the complete coloration of this specimen. Its wingspan is an estimated 10 inches.

The “Big Brown Bat” (?Eptesicus fuscus) is my tentative identification of this specimen. According to Macmillan Encyclopedia (1984, pp. 50-51), a bat with similar coloration and a wingspan of 10.25 inches to 14.5 inches is Eptesicus fuscus.

This bat species is found in southern Canada, throughout the USA, the Caribbean region, and South America (Columbia and Venezuela). Most bats are insectivores and nocturnal, so seeing one in the day was unusual (Wikipedia 2026).

  Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Chiroptera

Family Vespertilliondae

Genus Eptesicus

Type Species E. fuscus

As with most bats, this bat is an insectivore and is nocturnal. Its life span is about 6.5 years.

References

Macmillan illustrated animal encyclopedia. 1984. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 600 pp.

Wikipedia, 2026.

BOUGAINVILLEA PLANT

The bougainvillea [boo-gan-vill-ee-a] plant is a thorny ornamental vine, bush, or tree (up to 40 feet tall) with purple, pink, red, yellow, and white bracts, which are very thin and wrinkly. There are also some tiny white flowers scattered about among the bracts. This plant has very sharp and numerous spiky thorns. The sap from this tree can cause skin rashes. It can be pruned and is also drought tolerant. 

  Classification

Kingdom Plantae
Clades (4 of them)
Order Caryophyllae

Family Nyctaginaceae

Genus Bougainvillea

The bougainvillea plant likes warm climates. It is native to tropical forests in Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Argentina. Like most plants these days, it is found elsewhere in the world, namely Florida, South Carolina, California, Mediterrranean area, and southern India. The exact number of species of this plant has not fully established. The number ranges from 4 to 22 and reflects whether or not a lumper or a splitter was asked. The geologic time range of this interesting and beautiful plant is unknown.

Figure 1. Many wrinkly red bracts and some scattered tiny! white flowers on a bougainvillea tree.

Figure 2. A cluster of white bougainvillea flowers among red bracts.

Figure 3. Pink bracts surrounding the tiny white flowers of this plant.

GIANT KELP

Macrocystis pyrifera the “giant kelp,” is a common monospecific brown algae"plant" that can be up to about 200 feet (60 m) tall. It is not a true plant because it lack vascular tissue, roots, flowers, and seeds. It obtains its nutrients by absorbing them. It is the largest of all the kelps. Technically speaking, it is not a plant; rather it is a stramenopile.

It is common along the Pacific Ocean shoreline, from southeastern Alaska to Baja California. In cold, nutrient-rich waters, this kelp can grow at the rate of 2 feet (60 cm) per day, and is one of the fastest growing organisms on Earth. It lives in intertidal to shallow tidal depths. It anchors itself to the sea floor by means of a root-like tangle, called a "holdfast." Gas-filled bladders, located at the base of each leaf-like blade, provide buoyancy so the fronds can float vertically.

Figure 1. A typical kelp growth on the ocean floor, with a scuba diver standing next to, in order to show its relative size. This image was taken at the Aquarium of the Pacific in southern Los Angeles, California. 

“Giant kelp forests” provide excellent cover and habitats for numerous kinds of marine animals. It can also be used as food for humans.

The genus is widespread and is found in subtropical, temperate, sub-artic, and sub-anarctic areas: from Alaska to Peru. South Africa, southern Australia, and New Zealand (Wikipedia, 2026).

TUCKEROO TREE

It took me one year to identify this tree, which is growing in the front yard of one of my neighbors. I had to wait until this unusual tree bore its fruit. Then, I was finally able to make a positive identification . Otherwise, the size, shape, and overall features of this tree are not that distinctive.

The tuckeroo tree, technically known as Cupaniopsis anacardiodes, is native to eastern and northern Australia. It is also found in Micronesia, the Solomon Islands, and Fiji. It is considered to be an “invasive plant” in Pakistan and in the USA, where it is mainly found in the latter in Florida and Hawaii. 

This tree also is known as the “carrotwood” tree. It prefers rocky beaches, hilly scrublands, and rainforests. It grows up to about 36 feet tall (Figure 1). Its leaves are sort of rubbery-looking and fairly long. They narrow toward the base of the leave, thus it has paripinnate leaves.

Its fruit consists of semi-spherical, orange-colored capsules that can be tinged red (see Figure 2). The fruit attracts birds and butterflies.

  Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Clades (4 of them)

Order Sapindales

Family Sapindaceae

Genus Cupaniopsis

                                        

              Figure 1. A tuckeroo tree growing in southern California.

                    Figure 2. Leaves and fruit of a tuckeroo tree.