EXAMPLES OF MADAGASCAR’S PLANTS

1. RED EUPHORBIA

This flower, which is native to Madagascar, is also known as the “crown of thorns.”  It grows on woody succulent shrubs, up to six feet tall (depending on the cultivare). It can also grow horizontally or vertically.

The flowers, which are tiny and grow in the central area of the flower, are surrounded by a pair of large petal-like bracts, which can be red, pink, or white. The sap of this plant is moderately poisonous to humans but is very toxic to horses, sheep, cats, and dogs.

  Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Clades (4 of them)

Order Malpighiales

Family Euphorbiaceae

Genus Euphorbia

  Figure 1. Red Euphorbia milli. 

2. DARWIN’S ORCHID

This orchid is native to Madagascar. It is known as the “comet orchid” or the “Christmas orchid,” which has a large white flower that is star-shaped. It grows non-parasitically within branches of trees, which have long leaves. This plant is found in lowlands (below 500 feet elevation), near the east coast of Madagascar. It requires heavy rainfall (150 inches per year!), without a dry season; thus this plant grows continuously. 

Darwin predicated, based on his theory of evolution, that this flower would need a moth with a long proboscis in order to reach deep, down inside this plant in order to pollinate it. Later, his assumption was proven. See my previous post about the “Sphinx Caterpillar,” whose moth stage is a “key player” in the fertilization of this this flower.

  Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Clades 3 of them

Order Asparagales

Family Orchidaceae

Genus Angraerum

Type Species A. sesquipedale

                      Figure 2. Darwin’s Orchid (image via picryl).

3. “THE BLACK ORCHID” 

Although this orchid appears to be black, true jet-black pigment does not exist in nature. These plants, however, have such a dense concentration of purple, red, or burgundy pigment that they appear pitch-black in certain lighting. “Black” orchids sell for up to $165 dollars per mature plant!

  Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Clades (3 of them)

Order Asparageles

Family Orchidaceae

Genus Angraecum

Type Species A. sesquipedale

Note: The term “black orchid” has been used for the name of the following: books, comics, movies, music, fragrances, as well as for many different flowers. 

                       Figure 3. The Black Orchid. Image via picryl.

MADAGASCAR: A LAND WITH A WILD” GEOLOGIC HISTORY” AND ASSOCIATED LIFEFORMS

MADAGASCAR: Part 1--Geologic History Summary 

  Part 2 = examples of flowers and Part 3 = examples of animals (will soon follow).

170 million years ago Madagascar was part of a giant landmass, comprised of Africa, South America, Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia.

135 million years ago, Madagascar and India were still united but separate from the other landmasses mentioned above.

88 million years ago, Madagascar began to separate from India.

60 million years ago, Madagascar was finally and totally ISOLATED and has been ever since [note: Madagascar is about 78 percent the size of Texas].

The present-day geology of Madagascar is evidence of a complex history. The central and eastern parts of this land consist of metamorphic and igneous rocks, including Precambrian-age granite. In stark contrast, the western part consists of fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks ranging from Carboniferous to Tertiary-age rocks (e.g., Madagascar is well known for its Cretaceous ammonites). As a result of this complicated geologic history, the animals and plants that have lived in Madagascar have had significant time and opportunity to evolve into many new groups. 

Approximately 83 percent of its Madagascar’s flower species are not found elsewhere on Earth. Approximately 85 percent of Madagascar’s animal species are not found elsewhere on Earth. Also, Examples of some of these flowers and animals will be shown and briefly discussed in my next two upcoming posts. 

Figure 1. Google Earth satellite view of southern Africa (on the left) and Madagascar (on the right).

Figure 2. Google Earth satellite view of Madagascar.

THE MANTIS SHRIMP: AN UNUSUAL ANIMAL

These shrimps, typically 6 to 12 inches long, are fierce predators that live in shallow, sandy tropical waters, mainly in the Indian and Pacific oceans. Its front appendages are powerful weapons. This shrimp crushes its prey by using its claws that strike like a rifle bullet. The strike force can create a shock wave that can stun or even fill the prey (even if the strike is a narrow miss). They have four types of claws: spears, hatchets, smashers, and spikes.

This unusual shrimp can easily open crab bodies, snail shells, and oyster shells. The strike force of this shrimp can also crack aquarium glass! Please note: humans are frequently injured by strikes from mantis shrimp. 

Figure 1. Mantis shrimp, Odontodactylus scyllarus. Image via the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History.  

Mantis shrimps also have incredible eyesight. They have 16 types of color-receptive cones, whereas humans have only three cones (green, blue, and red) that are able to perceive color. Mantis shrimps can perceive wavelengths of light ranging from deep UV (300 nanno meters) to far-red (720 nm). They can also perceive polarized light. 

Predators that hunt mantis shrimps are: sharks, octopuses, tuna, large fish, cuttlefish, and squid.

   Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Malacostraca

Order Stomatopoda

Genus Odontodactylus

Type Species O. scyllarus (Linnaeus, 1758)

The oldest “stem group” that was apparently directly related to the future evolution of mantis shrimp was Carboniferous age. The earliest unambiguous group related to mantis shrimps is geologically younger (i.e. Triassic age).

     Reference

Wikipedia, 2016  

THE BLUE-RINGED OCTOPUS

This octopus is only 5 to 8 inches long, but it has a deadly bite! There are four species of this octopus in genus Hapalochlaena, and all four have the venon. According to some sources, these octopods have some of the most potent venom of any animal. It is 1,200 times more toxic to humans than cyanide, and there is no known antidote. Death could occur within 20 minutes or within a few hours, depending if the venom was injected and how much venom was injected into your blood stream.

           Figure 1. A blue-ringed octopus. From Beesley et al., 1998, pp. 548, fig. 13.35

 This octopus has yellowish skin with characteristic blue and black rings that can change color when the animal is threatened. Normally, it has a bluish color. When provoked it becomes somewhat yellow = a serious warning! Fortunately, they spend most of their time in hiding. 

It lives in tide pools, among coral-reef structures in tropical waters in the Pacific and Indian oceans, as well as Australia to Japan.  DO NOT EVER pick one up because it is an extremely venomous species. There is no anti-venom. Their toxin (called tetrodotoxin)  can paralyze and even kill a human within minutes.

   Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Order Octopoda

Family Octopodidae

Genus Hapalochlaena

Type Species H. lunulata

Fortunately, these cephalopods spend most of time hiding in crevices. They eat small crustaceans (e.g. crabs and shrimp), as well as small fish. The female can coat her eggs with this venom in order to deter predators. So, also, never eat the eggs of this octopus.

REFERENCE

Beesley, P.L., G.J.B., Ross, and A. Wells. (eds.). 1998. Part A: Fauna of Australia, Volume 5, 563 pp. [see pp. 548-549). 

THREE TROPICAL LEAFY PLANTS

 1. The first of these unusual leafy plants belongs to the “Zebra Plant,” also known as Aphelandra sp. (Figure 1).  It is an evergreen shrub, 1 to 2 m tall, with long (up to 50 cm), simple leaves (often having white veins).  There are several species and they are grown mainly as house plants. They are native to tropical regions of the Americas.

  Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Clades (4 of them)

Order Lamiales

Family Acanthaceae

Genus Aphelandra

Figure 1. "Zebra Plant"

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2. The second of these unusual leaves belongs to the “Prayer Plant,” also known as Maranta leuconeura (Figure 2). Their oval-shaped leaves are bright green and up to 12 cm long. They are tropical and native to South America and the West Indies. This plant spreads itself horizontally and can carpet and entire small area of the forest floor. 

This perennial plant has been highly cultivated to produce “arrowroot.” There are 40 to 50 species! During the day, the leaves of this plant are flat, but they fold-up at night (hence the common name “prayer plant.” Some of the species of this plant can be house plants in warm climates.

  Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Clades (4 of them)

Order Zingiberales

Family Marantaceae

Genus Maranta

Figure 2. "Prayer Plant."

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3. The third of these unusual leaves belongs to genus Alocsia, also known as the “elephant ear” (Figure 3). It is native to tropical and subtropical southeast Asia and northeast Australia. There are 91 accepted species! Unfortunately, this name has been used for other plants, and that is one problem with the use of “common names” of plants. There are 91 accepted species. 

This tropical to subtopical perennial plant has many cultivares and hybrids. Its cordate leaves can be up to 35 inches long. They are typically gray, with white veins. Their flowers are usually hidden behind the leaves (which have undulating edges). This plant contains chemical irritants (i.e., do not ingest it).

Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Clades (3 of them)

Order Alismatales

Family Araceae

Genus Alocasia

Type Species A. cucullata

Figure 3. "Elephant Ear plant."

CANNA INDICA FLOWER: PART 2

On June 5, 2026, I published one of my blog posts on “An Unforgettable Flower.”  It was an example of Canna indica, about 3 feet tall, with a few red and yellow flowers, and was growing in my neighbor’s yard.

Recently, I was walking by the same neighbor’s yard and I spotted yet another similar plant that had a large all-red flower. It took some research to discover that this “new” all-red flower is a variety of Canna indica. Nevertheless, I decided to write up a new post and include an image of this additional example (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Canna indica, in a neighbor's front yard. 

Also, I recently visited a nearby garden nursery, and I recognized yet another example of this plant, and I was able confirm that this plant can reach up to 8 feet tall. I include an image of the top part of that particular flower (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Canna indica at a local commercial garden nursery. The  entire plant was about 8 feet tall--estimated.

Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Clades (6 of them!)

Order Zingiberales

Family Cannaceae

Genus Canna

Type Species C. indica

I also did some new research about Canna indica  which is native to much of South America and Central America. In the following text, I present my latest findings:

Canna indica is a perennial, hardy plant that has now been introduced successfully into many countries, including much of Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, southeast Asia, Australia, many Pacific islands, and the southeastern USA. It also definitely grows well here in southern California.  

Some countries look upon this beautiful flower as an invasive plant. It thrives in temperate, tropical, or subtropical climates, as well as in mountain climates, between 3,300 and 6,000 feet.

This plant is also known as “Indian Shot.” That is because its seeds are small, black pellets that resemble shotgun pellets.

A SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA DRAGONFLY

Dragonflies are very rare in my immediate neighborhood in southern California. Over the years, I have only seen the one, shown below, in our garden. The main reason for their virtual absence is that they like to like around bodies of water (canals, ponds, lakes, etc.). Such environments are several miles away from where I live.

Figure 1.  A "Variegated Meadowhawk dragonflyI" seen in Santa Clarita, southern California. This specimen is a female female and about 4 cm in length. 

The dragonfly is scientifically known as Sypetrum corruptum. Male and female dragonflies typically can have vastly different coloration, and the female specimen shown and discussed here is gray, with yellow partitions on the body. The male specimens of this dragonfly species have bright red or pink partitions. 

Sypetrum corruptum is native to North America and ranges from southern central British Columbia, along the west coast of the U.S.A. and as south as Mexico and Honduras. It is locally found in the east-coast region of the U.S.A. (including Florida).

Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Insecta

Order Odonata

Family Libellulidae

Genus Sympetrum

Type Species S. corruptum

The geologic time range of dragonflies is from the Pennsylvanian Period (about 315 million years ago) to present day. 

Reference

Wikipedia, 2026