GEOLOGY OF GRAND CANYON and COPPER CANYON

                                                                                            GRAND CANYON

Grand Canyon is formed by a single river, the Colorado River. This canyon is 4,674 feet deep and 277 miles long. The ages of the rocks in this canyon range from Precambrian to Pennsylvian/Permian, with a combined duration of 1.8 billion years.

By the way, there is a commercially available, rubber-raft (or wood boat)  trip down through the Grand Canyon.

Figure 1. A representative portion of the Grand Canyon, Arizona; image by R. L. Squires, Sept. 1973.

                                                                                          COPPER CANYON

Copper Canyon is a scenic area in northwest Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua and is always compared (online at least) to the Grand Canyon in Arizona, USA. The name “Copper Canyon” is derived from the copper-green hue of some of its canyon walls.

By the way, it is possible to take a commercial train through the Copper Canyon area, which has extensive Douglas Fir, pine, and oak trees along the route.

  

Copper Canyon is actually a misnomer. It is not a single canyon, rather it a network of six separate canyons with many side canyons. The deepest part of canyon network is 6,136 feet.

Copper Canyon encompasses about 25,000 square miles, that together is four to seven times the size of the Grand Canyon (depending on how you map the Copper Canyon area).

Cooper Canyon rocks consist primarily of explosive volcanic ash flows, mudflows, and breccia (angular conglomerates), deposited approximately 20 to 40 million years ago during early Eocene to early Miocene time. 

Figure 2. A representative area of a part of Copper Canyon (image modified from an image in the website entitled: images.pexels.com).

STAG BEETLE

Male stag beetles have overzised mandibles that resemble antlers. They are used to wrestle each other for favored mating sites. The females have much smaller bodies and jaws.

Stag Beetle image via public domain.

Stag beetles are not aggressive toward humans. These insects are rare and a symbol of good luck. In some cultures, they are used in for betting/gaming activities (i.e., fighting one another), but not in the USA. In most countries, they are rare and a symbol of good luck.

The fossil record of these distinctive insects ranges from late Middle Jurassic (Callovian) [176 million years ago] to recent.

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Insecta

Order Coleoptera

Family Luncanidae

Genus Lucanus

There are many species; for example, in the USA alone, there are 30 species.

Reference

Wikipidea, 2026

MOLA FISH: AN UNFORETABLE ANIMAL

This large fish lives offshore, near the surface, in warm oceans. It is not a common fish. They typically lie on their side and move slowly by slapping their dorsal and anal fins in alternation.

Their length is usually 4 to 8 feet, with 11 feet the maximum. They

can weight up to 600 pounds. Their large, dorsal and anal fins characterize this fish. When viewed from above, they have the shape of a "coin"--wide but very narrow. But viewed sideways, they have a large surface area, and they look like a fish "chopped in half." They typically lie on their side, near the surface (as if they are sunning themselves).

They eat mainly squid and jellyfish. The Mola fish is no threat to humans. 

   Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Actinopterygii

Order Tetraodontiformes

Family Molidae

Genus Mola

Type species: M. mola (Linnaeus, 1758).

References

Reader's Digest, 1982. North American Wildlife. Pleasantiville, New York. 615 pp. 

Wikipedia. 2026. Mola mola.

all the following images are public domain images

Mola mola in motion.

Mola mola (showing the detail of its skin).

A "captured" Mola mola.

THE MOLE RATS

There are two types of mole rats (both small in size): the naked mole rat and the Damaraland mole rat.

Both are unique small rodents and live their entire lives underground, in burrowing eusocial colonies in Africa. These colonies are like those found in eusocial colonies of ants, termites, and bees. Similarly, fhere is also only a single queen in each mole colony. 

Both kinds of mole rats have no external ears and very tiny eyes (because they live all their lives underground, eyes/sight is not that important). 

The naked mole-rat, which lives in grassy, semi-arid regions of East Africa, is hairless with wrinkled skin that is red grayish-pink in color. This kind of mole rat can live up to 30 years.

                                            

Figure 1. Two views of a naked-mole rat: Heterocephalus glaber (about 3 inches long).

                          Figure 2. Inside view of the underground colony of H. glaber = Naked Mole Rat.

Figure 3. An adult Fukomys damarensis = Damaraland Mole Rat, which lives in Southern Africa, has short black/gray fur--along with a white patch at the top of the head. 

Both types of these mole rats have a long lifespan (up to 30 years). They are most closely related to porcupines and guinea pigs, than to true moles or rats. Both type of these mole rats have powerful teeth used to dig underground tunnel systems.

The Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute has a cam for the public to view a live colony of mole rats (if the cam is working).

                                   Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Rodentia

        --------------------------------------------------------------

Naked Mole Rat:                         Damaraland Mole Rat:

Family Bathyegidae                     Family Bathyegidae

Genus Heterocephalus                 Genus Fukomys

Species glaber                                Species damasrensis

FOUR EXAMPLES OF POISONOUS FROGS

The higher classification of the four examples given below is the same:

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Amphibia

Order Anura

1. Bombina orientalis: “oriental fire-bellied toad”

Mildly toxic, green and black on top, orange stripes on bottom, not a true toad, up to 2 inches long and 2 ounces weight, semiquatic, lives in/near slow-moving water in temperate forests at elevations up to 3,600 feet. NE ASIA (e.g., Korea, NE China, southern Japan, NE Russia) 

Family Bombinatoridae

Genus Bombina

Type Species B. orientialis

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2. Dendrobates azureus: “blue poison frog”

Family Dendrobatidae

Genus Dendrobates

Type species: azureus

This frog lives in "forest islands" surrounded by grasslands in southern in northeastern South America. They have few predators, but their tadpoles have no poison, thus they are eaten by predators. The adults are active during the day. They hide among boulders in streams because they lack toe webbing, thus they are poor swimmers and have to hide among boulders. They were not discovered until 1968. They are only two inches long and weight only 0.3 ounces.

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3. Phyllobates terrebilis: “golden frog”

also known as the golden dart frog and golden poison-arrow frog (i.e., their poison is put on the tips of arrows and spears to kill prey).

Family Dendrobatidae

Genus Phyllobates

Type Species P. terribilis

Lives in rain forests in Columbia.

It is now endangered because of habitat destruction.

This species is the largest in physical size (up to 6 inches length) of the poison-dart family.

There are several color morphs: yellow, yellow-orange, metallic orange, green, and mint.

This frog is one of the “Harlequin toads,” which are all small, diurnal, and poisonous.

Native to South and Central America.

This is the most poisonous animal species on Earth. One tiny drop of toxin is all it takes to paralyze, and some cases, kill a foe (including humans). Columbia natives use the poison for their spear guns, when in search of prey. Even inhaling the fumes from this poison can be unhealthy.

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4. Dyscophus guineti “tomato frog”

Poisonous glands near its eyes. Also, this species can puff up its body.

The females are bright red-orange, whereas the males are yellow orange with black spots. This frog, which has a sticky tongue, eats small insects, larvae, and worms. It is an ambush predator. It lives 6 to 10 years, rarely up to 12 years. This genus is endemic to rain forests in northeast Madagascar. 

Family Microhylidae

Genus Dyscophus

Type species

REFERENCE

Wikipedia, 2026

A WELL PRESERVED EOCENE FRESH-WATER FISH

A WELL-PRESERVED EOCENE FISH FOSSIL 

The Green River Formation in Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah contains one of the world's most prolific Eocene (about 50 million years old) fossil-fish. This formation was deposited in subtropical lake(s) environment with anoxic conditions at its bottom that prevented decay. As a result, the Green River Formation shale beds contain some of the world's best preserved fish faunas (as well as leaves, freshwater stingrays, dog-sized horses, alligators, early flying bats, and an early primate).

The fish shown here (Fig. 1) is the second-most commonly preserved fish in this formation.    

An example of Diplomystus (a surface feeder) from the Green River Formation.

The scale is in centimeters (note: this specimen is just under 2 inches long).

Reference

Bradley, W. H. 1964. Geology of Green River Formation and associated Eocene rocks in southwestern Wyoming and adjacent parts of Colorado and Utah. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 497-A, 86 pp. [This publication is readily available online and for free download.]

NEVER SHAKE HANDS WITH A COCONUT CRAB

 NEVER EVER SHAKE “HANDS” WITH A COCONUT CRAB

This type of crab is usually referred to as the “robber crab” or “palm thief.” It is a terrestrial species of a giant hermit crab, and is the largest known terrestrial arthropod. It weighs up to 9 pounds (4.1 kilograms). Its body length is up to 3 feet. It is found on islands all across the Indian and Pacific oceans. Unfortunately, it is a threatened (vulnerable) species, primarily because of human activities. It is not aggressive toward people, but, of course, it will defend itself, if provoked. They are also good climbers, and can climb up into palm trees.

Their carapace (“shell”) can be blue/black, gray, orangish brown, red or reddish), purple, or even yellowish. There can also be spots and streaks of variable color on the exoskeleton (carapace). 

Fig. 1: A hand-drawn/colored illustration of a coconut crab (from plate 4 in a 1849 book) (see References below). 

Figs. 2 and 3. Restriction free, internet-derived (creazilla.com) and royality-free images of two species of living coconut crabs.

Juvenile coconut crabs might typically use empty-gastropod shells for protection, but adult specimens are not “shell carriers.”Juveniles of coconut crabs, furthermore, live in the water, whereas the adults become only air breathers.  Coconut crabs are omnivores (i.e., they can eat both plants and meat). They especially like fleshy fruits, nuts, seeds, and pith of fallen trees. They are also cannibalistic.

The claws of coconut crabs claws are strong enough to be able to rip open a coconut, as well as take a human finger off. The "cracking force" of their claws can be greater than 1500 newtons (note: a grizzly bear has only 1410 newtons of force in its claws).

Coconut crabs, like all crabs, have to periodically molt (shed) their exoskeleton, in order to grow larger (and you think you have problems!). The adults usually hide (from 3 to 16 weeks) in burrows that they dig, up to l m (3.3 feet) long, while the molting process is taking place because these animals are very vulnerable during molting. Coconut crabs can live to be 60 years old!

Their eggs are placed in the sea. The larvae take 3 to 4 weeks before settling on the ocean floor. Coconut crabs are also adapt at attaching their larvae to floating logs.

Classification: 

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Malacostra

Order Decopoda

Family Coenobitidae

Genus Birgus

Type Species B. latro

The fossil record of coconut crabs is Miocene to Recent.

Coconut crabs can eat birds, and they can also eat carrion and other organic material. Hence, early postings on the internet commonly inferred that the famous aviatrix, Amelia Earthart, whose plane disappeared over the Pacific Ocean, while she was attempting to fly around the world in a small plane, might have been eaten by coconut crabs, if her plane had crashed on a tropical island. Today, some internet postings state this assertion as a fact, that indeed she was eaten by such crabs, but there is not a shred of evidence to back up this assertion! This is a prime example of how false information can spread via the internet! So, as always, be informed and do not fall victim to unproven facts.

References

1849. Dictionnaire d’Histoire Naturele. [I found this reference online at en.m.wikipedia.org].

2025. Wikipedia.