Undoing Some Common Confusion

For years, I have never really taken the time to understand the difference between Baking Soda and Baking Powder. One of these is a chemical derived from mineral deposits (think geology!). The other is a man-made substance. Read on to learn or understand the difference between these two common ingredients used in baking.

                        BAKING SODA (= A NATURAL MINERAL)

It comes in an orangish box with strong arm holding a sledge hammer

This substance is also known as bread soda, cooking soda, brewing soda, or bicarbonate of soda.

Baking soda consists of sodium hydrogen bicarbonate, a bona fide evaporate mineral (NaHCO3) that occurs in nature as either the mineral nahcolite or the mineral trona. Nahcolite deposits are found in the USA, Botswana, Kenya, Uganda, Turkey, and Mexico. Trona is mostly found in the Green River basin in Wyoming, USA.

Baking soda does NOT contain an acid, thus it needs something acidic [lemon juice, vinegar, etc.] added to it, in order for it to work properly in making baked goods, like  bread, cookies, etc.

Baking soda is mainly used as a leavening agent as it reacts with acid (vinegar, yogurt, butter milk) to produced carbon dioxide in the process of making bread and cookies, etc.). Baking soda can also be used for cleaning stains, to neutralize acids, a browning agent for crisping in baking, a tenderizer of meat, an effect deodorant, and is used for water treatment.

         BAKING POWDER  (= A MAN-MADE FORMULA)

 

Usually comes in a white thin can with red lettering.

This is a generalized name pertaining to baking material (used for leavening purposes) with a variable chemical composition (i.e., it does not have a precise chemical formula). It is a mixture of sodium bicarbonate and a weak acid (already “built in”) that reacts to release carbon dioxide. Thus, baking powder does not need the addition of any acid.

So, for now you understand. But, will you remember the difference? If you are like me, probably not.

ZION CANYON

Zion Canyon, which is in the southwest corner of Utah, was designated as a National Park in 1919. This park, which has a floor elevation of 4,300 feet, has some spectacular vistas of massive, mostly redish sandstone cliffs, but also some in pink, red, or cream colors. Most the outcrops that make up these cliffs consist of the Navajo Sandstone of Early Jurassic age (approximately 185 to 190 million years old). These sandstone beds formed via massive windblown storms in an ancient desert. Today, these deposits consist of relatively soft sediments that easily erode into deep canyons.

Zion Canyon area was originally a relatively flat basin near sea level 270 million years ago. This basin gradually sank, with erosions from the surrounding area dumping large amount of sediment into this basin. This resulted in its top surface being near sea level. Over time, the depositional environment fluctuated from shallow seas to coastal plains and eventually a desert with large amounts of windblown sand. Uplift later caused these accumulated sediments to be as thick as 10,000 feet. The uplift is still ongoing today. [note: The bottom layer of rock at Bryce Canyon (see one of my previous posts) is the top layer at Zion.

To read more about the geologic history and see some really excellent summaries and stratigraphic columns that “tie together” this whole region (from the Grand Canyon to Bryce Canyon), please see nps.gov The Geology of Zion. If possible, take a field trip to see the geology for yourself.

A trip to Zion Canyon could be combined with a trip to the Grand Canyon and to Bryce Canyon. [Regarding the latter, which also in Utah, see one of my latest posts---Sept. 13, 2026].

                                    Figure 1. Zion Canyon.

                                      Figure 2. Zion Canyon.

                                       Figure 3. Zion Canyon.

THE MlNERAL TOPAZ

Topaz is a silicate mineral consisting mostly of aluminum, silicon, and oxygen, as well as some fluorine and some hydrogen atoms. It is a hard material (hardness of 8 on the Mohs hardness scale, with 10 being the hardest mineral = diamond).

Topaz is the "birthstone" for November. The practice of linking specific minerals to calendar months has had a fairly long history. The American Association of Jewelers in 1912 officially designated topaz to be the birthstone for November.

The name “topaz” is probably derived from the Sanskrit word “tapas,” meaning fire. It is commonly believed that all topaz is yellow, but that is not true. It is naturally colorless, but impurities, heat treatments, and/or radiation create shades of blue, yellow, yellow brown, brown, orange, red, pink, light green. Natural pink topaz is rare! Any intensely dark-blue topaz crystal will have been radiated via human interaction. 

Figure 1. A large light blue, non-radiated, crystal (46 carats and about 3 to 4 inches in diameter) of natural topaz from Minas Geras, Brazil. In this figure, I also included additional topaz minerals for comparison to the size of the unusually large crystal of blue topaz, which is displayed to the public in the mineralogy “room” at the Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles, California. This large crystal was collected from Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. Furthermore, clear crystals of topaz a foot and more across also have been found in Minas Gerais, Brazil (see below for more information and discussion about this locality). 

Topaz forms most commonly in pegmatite rocks, which consist of exceptionally coarse-grained, interlocking crystals, usually found as irregular dikes, lenses, and veins. Topaz, occurs in granites and in some cases, with rhyolite rocks. Very large crystals of topaz (up to several hundred pounds weight) have been found. Furthermore, topaz is commonly associated with fluorite, tourmaline, quartz, and other pegmatite minerals. In some cases, topaz has survived moderate amounts of transport by running water and occurs as rounded pebbles in alluvial deposits.

There are many misleading names that “suggest” a stone is topaz, when it is not! Examples are “Rio topaz,” “Maderia topaz,” “Spanish topaz,” “Palmeira topaz.” These are all types of citrine (quartz)!

Topaz is widespread in the world, with significant occurrences in Colorado, Utah, California, Texas, Virginia, Main, Connecticut, Colorado, Mexico, Russia, Nigeria, Japan, Australia, Tasmania, Pakistan, Japan, Africa, Sri Lanka, and Brazil.

The national mineral of Brazil is "Imperial Topaz," which can be red, orange, and/or yellow. 

Figure 2. Location of Minas Gerais (see the red dot), Brazil (at S18, W 44 degrees) in southern Brazil, South America of “Minas Gerais” in southeastern Brazil, South America. This region has the greatest variety of gems and semi-precious minerals in the world! Examples include diamonds, emeralds, gold, amethyst, rubellite (pink tourmaline), green tourmaline, topaz, alexanderite, amazonite, hematite, iron, etc. “Minas Gerais” is a Portuguese expression, meaning “General Mines.” Mining has been going on there, since the 18^th century. 

The geologic history of  geology of  the "Mines Gerais" locality is complicated! The area is centered on an ancient Precambrian core (1.7 billion years old), surrounded by younger mountains belts formed during major continental collisions. These collisions produced heat and chemically rich fluids that formed the vast-mineral wealth. The area has been mined for centuries. If  you go online and Google “Minas Gerais” minerals, and you will be amazed at the diversity of mineral wealth in the “Minas Gerais” region!

References:  [I consulted the following references in order to compile this blog post]. 

Bates, R.L. and J.A. Jackson (editors), 1984. Dictonary of Geological Terms. American Geological Institute. Third edition, 571 pp.

Berry, L.G. and B. Mason. 1950. Mineralogy. Concepts, descriptions, determinations. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco and London. 630 pp. 

Brown, V. et al. Rocks and minerals of California. Third edition. Naturegraph Publishing, 200 pp.

Hall, C. 1994. Gem stones. Eyewitness Handbooks. 160 pp.

Pellant, C. 1992. Eyewitness Handbooks. Rocks and Minerals. Dorling Kindersley, New York, 256 pp.

Sorrell, C.A. 1973. Rocks and Minerals. Golden Press, New York, 280 pp. 

Wikipedia. 2026.

"MOTH ORCHIDS"

Orchids are one of the largest families of plants today on Earth, with

about 900 genera and 26,000 species! Orchids like wet-tropical forests.

The "moth orchid," which is the focus of this blog post, is the most common orchid. Species of this kind of orchid have a wide range of colors and long-lasting flowers. Also, like all orchids, "moth orchids" have been widely cultivated.

Some specialized orchids (unlike those shown below) can grow on adjacent trees, instead of just growing in soil. To do so, these orchids have to use specialized roots to pull moisture from the air.

  Classification 
Kingdom Plantae
Clades (3 of them)
Order Asparagales
Family Orchidiaceae
Genus Phalaenopsis
Type species P. amaryllis

The orchid genus Phalaeonopsis is native to Asia, New Guinea, and Australia, but this genus mostly occurs today in Indonesia and the Philippines. This genus is represented by about 70 species. Like most orchids, this genus has long-lasting flowers. Common colors are shown below in the three figures.

Genus Phalaeonopsis is known for having long-lasting blooms and easy care. The following three images show a selection of Phalaeonopsis flowers.

                                                Figure 1. 

Figure 2. 

Figure 3.

BRYCE CANYON NATIONAL PARK

This national park is located in south-central Utah, and its elevation is between 8,000 and 9,000 feet. It is known for its unusual rock formations called “hoodoos.” [note: these are the largest concentration of “hoodoos,” anywhere in the world]. 

The spire-shaped “hoodoos” were formed by erosion of freshwater limestones of the Eocene-age Claron Formation. These rocks were originally formed a system of freshwater lakes in a flat, low-lying basin where muddy sediments accumulated. Eventually the pinnacles, canyons, bridges, and spires were formed by frost-weathering and stream-erosion processes. These rocks constitute a series of giant natural amphitheraters formed by fresh-water stream-erosion of river and lake beds, which now make up the non-marine Claron Formation.”

The Claron Formation is underlain by marine Cretaceous rocks which have some fossils (early mammals, lizards, etc.). Elsewhere in the park  are some Cretaceous rocks with some dinosaur remains and tracks, as well as some turtle and crocodilians remains, etc. Of course, collecting of fossils is not allowed anywhere in the park!

Bryce Canyon is an interesting place and definitely worth visiting. I visited the site in 1975. If you go there in the fall or winter, bring a warm jacket. 

Figure 1.Scenic view of the "hoodoos" rock formations.

Figure 2. Close-up of some "hoodoos."

Figure 3. View of one of the trails that visitors can hike down into some outcrops of rock. 

BIG BROWN BAT

Southern California has 20 to 25 species of bats. A bat was found on the ground (it later flew away) in a back yard in Santa Clarita, southern California. The animal had apparently been resting in a garden shed and was disturbed in its slumber. It did not allow vertical nor side views of it (no one should ever pick up a bat on the ground), thus its identification as to genus and species is questionable. The bat appeared to be dazed, but after a short time of recovery, it flew away.

Fig. 1. Big Brown Bat, in Santa Clarita, Southern California.

As can be seen in the only photograph I have of this bat, its upper wing surfaces, face, and ears are black. Its head and neck area, however, are gray. I do not have information as to the complete coloration of this specimen. Its wingspan is an estimated 10 inches.

The “Big Brown Bat” (?Eptesicus fuscus) is my tentative identification of this specimen. According to Macmillan Encyclopedia (1984, pp. 50-51), a bat with similar coloration and a wingspan of 10.25 inches to 14.5 inches is Eptesicus fuscus.

This bat species is found in southern Canada, throughout the USA, the Caribbean region, and South America (Columbia and Venezuela). Most bats are insectivores and nocturnal, so seeing one in the day was unusual (Wikipedia 2026).

  Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Chiroptera

Family Vespertilliondae

Genus Eptesicus

Type Species E. fuscus

As with most bats, this bat is an insectivore and is nocturnal. Its life span is about 6.5 years.

References

Macmillan illustrated animal encyclopedia. 1984. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 600 pp.

Wikipedia, 2026.

BOUGAINVILLEA PLANT

The bougainvillea [boo-gan-vill-ee-a] plant is a thorny ornamental vine, bush, or tree (up to 40 feet tall) with purple, pink, red, yellow, and white bracts, which are very thin and wrinkly. There are also some tiny white flowers scattered about among the bracts. This plant has very sharp and numerous spiky thorns. The sap from this tree can cause skin rashes. It can be pruned and is also drought tolerant. 

  Classification

Kingdom Plantae
Clades (4 of them)
Order Caryophyllae

Family Nyctaginaceae

Genus Bougainvillea

The bougainvillea plant likes warm climates. It is native to tropical forests in Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Argentina. Like most plants these days, it is found elsewhere in the world, namely Florida, South Carolina, California, Mediterrranean area, and southern India. The exact number of species of this plant has not fully established. The number ranges from 4 to 22 and reflects whether or not a lumper or a splitter was asked. The geologic time range of this interesting and beautiful plant is unknown.

Figure 1. Many wrinkly red bracts and some scattered tiny! white flowers on a bougainvillea tree.

Figure 2. A cluster of white bougainvillea flowers among red bracts.

Figure 3. Pink bracts surrounding the tiny white flowers of this plant.

GIANT KELP

Macrocystis pyrifera the “giant kelp,” is a common monospecific brown algae"plant" that can be up to about 200 feet (60 m) tall. It is not a true plant because it lack vascular tissue, roots, flowers, and seeds. It obtains its nutrients by absorbing them. It is the largest of all the kelps. Technically speaking, it is not a plant; rather it is a stramenopile.

It is common along the Pacific Ocean shoreline, from southeastern Alaska to Baja California. In cold, nutrient-rich waters, this kelp can grow at the rate of 2 feet (60 cm) per day, and is one of the fastest growing organisms on Earth. It lives in intertidal to shallow tidal depths. It anchors itself to the sea floor by means of a root-like tangle, called a "holdfast." Gas-filled bladders, located at the base of each leaf-like blade, provide buoyancy so the fronds can float vertically.

Figure 1. A typical kelp growth on the ocean floor, with a scuba diver standing next to, in order to show its relative size. This image was taken at the Aquarium of the Pacific in southern Los Angeles, California. 

“Giant kelp forests” provide excellent cover and habitats for numerous kinds of marine animals. It can also be used as food for humans.

The genus is widespread and is found in subtropical, temperate, sub-artic, and sub-anarctic areas: from Alaska to Peru. South Africa, southern Australia, and New Zealand (Wikipedia, 2026).

TUCKEROO TREE

It took me one year to identify this tree, which is growing in the front yard of one of my neighbors. I had to wait until this unusual tree bore its fruit. Then, I was finally able to make a positive identification . Otherwise, the size, shape, and overall features of this tree are not that distinctive.

The tuckeroo tree, technically known as Cupaniopsis anacardiodes, is native to eastern and northern Australia. It is also found in Micronesia, the Solomon Islands, and Fiji. It is considered to be an “invasive plant” in Pakistan and in the USA, where it is mainly found in the latter in Florida and Hawaii. 

This tree also is known as the “carrotwood” tree. It prefers rocky beaches, hilly scrublands, and rainforests. It grows up to about 36 feet tall (Figure 1). Its leaves are sort of rubbery-looking and fairly long. They narrow toward the base of the leave, thus it has paripinnate leaves.

Its fruit consists of semi-spherical, orange-colored capsules that can be tinged red (see Figure 2). The fruit attracts birds and butterflies.

  Classification

Kingdom Plantae

Clades (4 of them)

Order Sapindales

Family Sapindaceae

Genus Cupaniopsis

                                        

              Figure 1. A tuckeroo tree growing in southern California.

                    Figure 2. Leaves and fruit of a tuckeroo tree.

THE WHITE RHINO

This mammal is an odd-toed ungulate, whose wild representatives are mostly confined to southern Africa. These animals faced extinction in the early 20^th century, but, today, their populations are “hanging in there,” with many of these animals now in wildlife parks and in some zoos. Poaching remains a constant threat for those that live in the wild. 

  

                                              Figure 1. “White rhino” at a wildlife park in San Diego County, southern California.

Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Perissodactyla (= odd toed ungulates)

Family Rhinocerotidae

Genus Ceratototherium

Type Species C. simum

Rhinos originated in North America during the early middle Eocene time, about 40 million years ago. By the end of Oligocene time (23 million years ago), they had mostly died out in North America but some migrated into Africa. Subsequently, they evolved and spread into India, Sumatra, Indonesia, and Java. Today, there are three remaining species of rhinos in this general area and are represented by the Indian, Sumatran, and Javan rhinos. Also, during the Pleistocene Ice Age, some rhinos lived in northern cold regions in North America. 

Today, there are only five extant species of rhinos, and they live either in Africa or in the Indonesian region (some in the wild, some in wildlife parks, and some in zoos).

THE "TELESCOPE" FISH

There are only two species (Gigantura chuni and G. indica) known of this medium-sized (up to 26 inches long), deep-sea fish, which has magnified eyes, an elongated, scale-less body with silvery coloration, ribbon-like tails, and many needle-like teeth.

Figure 1. The head and mouth of an adult-stage mouth of Gigantura indica (public domain image via the Smithsonian Institution).

These fish live in cold waters, in deep-sea (500 to 2,000 m depths) that underlie warm tropical to subtropical surface waters.

"Telescope" fish use their large eyes to help capture their prey in very low-light conditions. "Telescope fish," furthermore consume all available prey, regardless of size! They basically have raptorial feeding that is similar to moray eels.

Figure 2. Adult-stage head and eyes of Gigantura indica. A public domain image via the Smithsonian Institution.

The larvae (nearly microscopic in size) and juveniles (a few inches long) (Figure 3) of these types of fish undergo remarkable transformations, with two stages of transformation that are very different-looking. In fact, for 80 years, scientists did not know that these early-stage forms represented Gigantura indica.

Figure 3. A late-juvenile stage of Gigantura indica (“telescope” fish). A public domain image via the Smithsonian Institution.

  Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Actinopterygii

Order Aulopiformes

Family Giganturidae

Genus Gigantura

Type Species Gigantura indica

_____________

Information about this fish is rather scarce. For the only overview I am aware of, see the online article entitled “The Remarkable Teleoscope Fish”--by D. Olson at:  http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/fish/remarkable-telescopefish

THE CALIFORNIA CHORUS TREE FROG

This small animal (thumb size about 1 to 1.5 inches long) is a master at hiding, not only because of its small size, but also because it has considerable color variation (tan to green). That makes it hard to find these frogs in trees, where they live and broadcast their presence via loud mating calls. They also has small green “bumps” on their back (these are too small to call this animal is a toad). They all have distinctive dark strips on their legs. They make trill sounds (similar to some insects). 

 Figure 1. The "California Chorus Tree Frog," Pseudacris cadaverina?, found in a backyard in Saugus, southern California, Los Angeles County. 

Chorus frogs are native to North America, ranging from southern Canada down though the continental United States (including Los Angeles County) as well as in Baja California (Mexico). 

Although they are found in trees, this frog is primarily a ground dweller and spends most of its time in thick grass, low vegetation, and leaf litter.

  Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Amphibia

Order Annura

Family Hylidae

Genus Pseudacris (note: there are many species)

Type Species P. nigrita

Reference

Wikipedia, 2026

THREE INTERESTING FISHES

 SHINER SURFPERCH

This fish, known as Cymatogaster aggregate, is the most abundant surf-perch along the west coast from Alaska to Baja California, Mexico. They can live up to nine years and are shallow-water dwellers that like to “hang around” piers and pilings.” They can live in kelp beds, bays, estuaries, and they can even tolerate brackish water. They are commonly used as bait for fishermen trying to catch larger marine fish. Some people eat these surf-perches because of their mild, white tasty flesh. 

These common fish usually are silvery color with yellow vertical bars crossed by dark stripes. They are typically small size (about 8 inches length) but can be up to 14 inches long and weight about four pounds. Some individuals can be almost solid black.

These fish live in "schools" and eat small crustaceans and other invertebrates. Females give birth to live young, rather than laying eggs.

    Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phlyum Vertebrata

Class Pisces

Order

Family

Genus Cymatogaster

Type Species 

Figure 1. “Shinner Surfperch” [Cymatogaster aggregate]; this specimen 8 inches (20 cm) length. Image via the Aquarium of the Pacific in southern California.

___________________________________

THE YELLOWTAIL DAMSELFISH

The generalized (common name) of “Damsel Fish” includes several different subfamilies of fish are mostly found in tropical oceans, especially in the Indo-Pacific region (including Indonesia and the Philippines). A few species can even live in brackish or fresh water.

The specific damselfish that is the focus of this blog post is Chrysiptera parasema, also known as the yellowtail damselfish. This fish prefers to live “schools” in sheltered lagoons and inshore coral-reef areas. They like depths between 3 to 50 feet deep. 

Juveniles of this fish initially have bright yellow color. When the fish becomes an adult, the coloration of this fish shifts to a vibrant blue color over all of the body, except for the tail (=caudal fin), which remains vibrant yellow. Adults can be up to 12 inches long.

  Classification

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Actinopterygii

Order Blenniiformes

FamilyPomacentridae

Genus Chrysiptera 

Type Species C. parasema

Figure 2. The yellowtail damselfish via the Aquarium of the Pacific in Los Angeles, California.

_____________________________________________________

                                                            

THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA STEELHEAD FISH

This is an endangered species, and there needs to be the immediate removable and/or modification of man-made structures that interfere with this fish’s migration to and from the ocean. If these modifications are not done, then the future of this fish is in great jeopardy. (see www.nmfs.noaa.gov and search the kewords “southern California steelhead.”

The upper elevations are where adults of this fish spawn eggs (in gravel). These eggs eventually hatch, and young fish develop. At the age of about 4 years, these young fish migrate into the ocean (at least theoretically), but man-made dams, etc. interfere with these migrations).

Figure 3. Southern California Steelhead fish.

Image via the Aquarium of the Pacific.

Reference For All the Above Fishes:

Wikipedia, 2026